History

Recent History

President Noboa was succeeded in 2002 by former coup-leader Lucio Gutiérrez - his populist agenda and promises to end government corruption won him the crucial electoral support of Ecuador's indigenous population. But shortly after taking office, Gutiérrez backed down on his promises and implemented IMF austerity measures to finance the country's massive debt. If that wasn't enough to turn the population against him, Gutiérrez tossed out almost the entire supreme court. Not surprisingly, protests erupted in the capital and Congress finally voted to throw Gutiérrez out, replacing him with vice president Alfredo Palacios. Palacios held on tightly to the reins until the October 2006 election. A conclusive winner could not be determined, so a runoff election was held the following month - with Rafael Correa finally emerging victorious.

Modern Day History

Over the last 100 years, assassinations and political instability have invoked increasing military intervention. Consequently, there have been more periods of military rule than of civilian.

In 1941, neighboring Peru invaded Ecuador and seized much of the country's Amazonian area. The 'new' border between the two countries - initially agreed upon and ratified by the 1942 Rio de Janeiro treaty - was finally recognized by both countries in a 1998 treaty. The squabbling ultimately died down because both countries were eager to impress potential foreign investors.

Until the 1970s, Ecuador was the archetypal 'banana republic'. However, bananas ceased being Ecuador's sole export after the discovery of oil in the Oriente at the end of the 1960s. Ecuador soon began borrowing money in the belief that oil profits would enable it to pay its foreign debts. In the '80s, however, there was a sharp decline in Ecuador's oil exports, world oil prices slumped and an earthquake wiped out a chunk of the oil pipeline. Ecuador still relies on oil as its economic mainstay, but reserves are not as large as previously hoped.

Life in Ecuador remained relatively peaceful until the end of the millennium. In an attempt to stop the decline of the Ecuadorian sucre, president Jamil Mahuad announced that he would 'dollarize' the economy, replacing sucres with US dollars at a rate of 25,000 sucres per dollar. Thousands of non-violent protestors, including indigenous leaders denouncing neo-liberal economic policies, subsequently occupied government buildings in Quito and forced his resignation.

Mahuad's vice-president, Guastavo Noboa, took office on January 22, 2000. Noboa was presented as one of the few honest politicians in a country where political corruption is the norm, even though his political experience was minimal. He vowed to eliminate political corruption, but continued apace with dubious International Monetary Fund (IMF) economic policies; he also went ahead with dollarization.

Pre 20th Century History

The history of pre-Inca Ecuador is lost in a misty tangle of time and legend - the earliest historical details date back only as far as the 11th century AD.

It is commonly believed that Asian nomads reached the South American continent around 12,000 BC. The Valdivia were Ecuador's first permanent sedentary culture. They developed along the Santa Elena peninsula from nearly 6000 years ago. The Chorrera appeared during the Formative Period (4000-300 BC) and were the most widespread and influential group during this time. Along with the Machalilla culture, they are known for their practice of skull deformation. As a form of status, they used stones to slowly elongate and flatten their craniums.

Around 600 BC, societies became more stratified; they were ruled by an elite caste of shamans and merchants who conducted long-distance trade. By AD 800, cultures had become integrated into larger, more hierarchical societies including the Manteños, Huancavilcas and Caras on the coast; the Quitus in the northern highlands; the Puruhá in the central highlands; and the Cañari around present-day Cuenca.

Centuries of tribal expansion, warfare and alliances resulted in the relatively stable Duchicela lineage, which ruled more or less peacefully for about 150 years until the arrival of the Incas around AD 1450.

Despite fierce opposition, the conquering Inca soon held the region, helped by strong leadership and intermarriage policies. War over the inheritance of the new Inca kingdom weakened and divided the region on the eve of the arrival of Spanish invaders.

The first Spaniards landed in northern Ecuador in 1526. Pizarro reached the country in 1532 and spread terror among the indigenous people thanks to his conquistadors' horses, armor and weaponry. The Incan leader, Atahualpa, was ambushed, held for ransom, 'tried' and executed, and the Incan empire was effectively demolished. Quito held out for two years but was eventually razed by Atahualpa's general, Rumiñahui, who preferred it to be destroyed rather than taken over intact by invading Spaniards. Quito was refounded in December 1534. Today, only one intact Incan site remains in Ecuador - Ingapirca, to the north of Cuenca.

There were no major uprisings by indigenous Ecuadorians, though life was abysmal under Spanish rule. Spain ruled the colony from Lima, Peru, until 1739, when it was transferred to the viceroyalty of Colombia. At this time, Ecuador was largely rural and conservative, with large estates of introduced cattle and bananas farmed by forced labor.

As a Creole middle class began to emerge, there were several attempts to liberate Ecuador from Spanish rule. Independence was finally achieved under Simón Bolívar in 1822, and full constitutional sovereignty gained in 1830. The country's internal history has since been marked by fierce rivalry and occasional open warfare between the church-backed conservatives, based in Quito, and the liberals and socialists of Guayaquil.